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| VII. THE GROWTH AND TRIBULATIONS
OF MODERN KOREA |
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| 3. Growth of Modern Culture and
Social Change |
| (1) Growth of the Ideas of Enlightenment |
During the period of the port openings, new ideas
of enlightenment spread rapidly among some of Choson's
intelligentsia.
These modernization ideas were spawned internally
by pragmatism and developed in the latter period
of Choson. It was conceived as a new recognition
of the world situation. Such ideas were formed in
the early 1870's and representative scholars of
enlightenment included Pak Kyusu, O Kyong-sok and
Yu Hong-ki. These men had traveled to China and
witnessed the changes of Western civilization as
well as the international situation, and therefore
advocated the opening of Choson's doors and the
introduction and utilization of Western technologies.
The enlightenment ideas were later widely accepted
and espoused by young bureaucrats. Kim Ok-kyun,
Hong Yong-sik, Pak Yong-hyo, So Chae-p'il and So
Kwang-pom, who had all received training from the
first enlightenment thinkers, promoted political
and economic reforms. Their greatest interests were
in the areas of modern scientific technology, the
munitions industry and industral organization.
They believed that the reasons behind Choson's lagging
developments in scientific technology and industry
were the political and social institutions and they,
therefore, advocated reforms for these structures.
These men proposed a change in the present political
system of monarchy to a constitutional monarchy,
appointing persons regardless of their social status,
and in the economic sphere, promoting modern industries
through the development of railroads, steamships
and telegraph communications. The realization of
these goals were the reasons for the Coup d'Etat
of 1884.
The enlightenment movement confronted opposition
from the conservative forces and, thus, was unable
to develop smoothly. As time went on, the ideas
of enlightenment spread throughout society and state
to become an important ideological base for the
modern reform movement. |
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A missionary
group of the Northern Methodist Church led
by Henry G. Apeenzeller of the United States
opened the first missionary high school, Paechae,
in 1866. |
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| (2) Propagation of Modern Education |
The first modern school in Korea was established
in 1883. The education institute, Tongmunhak, was
established in Seoul to mainly teach foreign languages
to train interpreters.
In Wonsan, the Wonsan haksa was set up with support
from the bureaucrats of the enlightenment school
to teach foreign languages, geography, history and
natural science. The government also established
the Yukyong kongwon in Seoul and invited Homer Hulbert
and other such Americans to instruct the sons of
the Yangban in foreign languages, mathematics, natural
sciences, history, government and other modern academic
fields.
Western missionaries in Korea founded schools as
a means of spreading their religion and engaged
in educational activities. Henry Gerhart Appenzeller
founded the Paechae haktang, Mary Scranton founded
the Ewha haktang, Horace Grant Underwood founded
the Kyongsin hakkyo, Ellia founded the Chongsin
yohakkyo, and Horace N. Allen, chief physician to
King Kojong, established a medical school called
the Kwanghyewon to provide education along with
clinical care.
The Western missionaries established schools and
provided education in order to propagate Christianity
and to train Christian workers. It is widely believed
that a great contribution was made to the enlightenment
movement through these contacts with modern education
and thinking.
After the peasant movement, the government made
various reforms in various fields including education.
The government promulgated the Royal Edict on Education
which urged the people to train themselves in intellectual,
moral and physical faculties in order to become
loyal subjects and patriotic citizens. In addition,
it created a modern educational system, and established
elementary schools, foreign language schools, middle
schools, medical schools, military schools, in addition
to agricultural, commercial and industrial schools.
In this way, Korea turned out many young men and
women possessing knowledge in modern academic fields.
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| (3) Induction of Modern Science and Technology
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With the opening of the Korean ports, some Western
ideas of scientific knowledge and technologies were
accepted. In the medical field, Chi Sog-yong introduced
vaccination methods and established a vaccination
bureau in Chonju, Kongju and Taegu to improve public
health.
There were developments in agricultural technology
as well. An Chongsu blended our traditional farming
methods with foreign farming technology and wrote
a new farmer's handbook. The government established
experimental agricultural and livestock farms in
order to propogate new skills.
For the promotion of modern industrial technical
training, various agencies were set up. In 1880,
the government established a mechanical plant, a
telegraph exchange, and a cocoonery, and civilians
built textile plants, reeling factories, and ironworks.
Telegraph lines were connected between Seoul, Inch'on
and Uiju and a domestic set of codes were invented.
Such accommodations in modern science and technology
were carried out even more actively by the Taehan
Cheguk government. Telephones, electric lights,
street cars and railroads were constructed and a
new style of architecture such as the stone palace
of Toksukung Palace was introduced.
However, since these modern facilities were made
in order to accommodate foreign aggression into
Korea, opposition movements began to spring up among
the people. |
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| (4) Expansion of Faith Movements |
| After the opening of the ports, social and economic
changes as well as political suffering brought about
a new awakening among the people and the various
religious movements. In particular, the idea of
Tonghak, which was created to counter the influence
of Western religions, was widely propagated among
suffering peasants and by early 1890. Its influence
stretched throughout the entire nation. |
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Saemunan
church :
Established in September 1887, it was Korea's
first church |
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Catholicism and Protestantism were at first prohibited,
but with the signing of a treaty with France in
1886, the practice of these religions was permitted.
Of course, there were many people who secretly practiced
and believed in these faiths prior to the treaty.
In particular, Catholicism, which was introduced
to Choson 100 years before this time, had spread
widely in spite of severe persecution. However,
with enlightenment and concomitantly, the propogation
of freedom of religion, many churches were established
in Seoul and the countryside. Moreover, many missionaries
arrived in Choson to engage in religious conversion
as well as education and medical activities.
Tonghak and Christianity aided in spreading the
concept of equality and raising a modern consciousness
among the people. The Peasant War of 1894 was deeply
influenced by the thoughts of Tonghak and the enlightenment
movement was greatly influenced by Christianity.
However, Christianity also played a role in drawing
Western forces into Korea. |
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Taechosun Tongnip hyop'hoe
Hoebo.
First published in November 1896 as the official
publication of the Tongnip hyop'hoe (Association
for independence), the newspaper ran editorials
on a wide range of governmental affairs in
order to instill patriotism among the people. |
Taehan Maril Sinbo :
Co-published by E.T. Bethell, a Briton, and
Yang Ki-tak in 1904. The newspaper played
an important role in inspiring patriotism
and educating the public.
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| (5) Rise of the Ideology of Civil Rights |
With the growth of enlightenment, awareness of
human freedom and rights was heightened. In the
premodern society, where there was a legal and socially
rigid distinction between Yangbans and Sangnoms,
civil rights for the people could not exist. However,
from the latter period of Choson when the social
status system began to crumble, the ideas of equality
and freedom began to take root in Korea. These ideas
were more actively pursued with the spread of Western
and Tonghak thoughts.
The Independence Council was most ardent in its
cries for civil rights. The Council combined the
theories of the enlightenment thinkers and advocated
the individual's right to live, freedom to own property,
freedom of speech and assembly, and the people's
rights of sovereignty and participation in government.
They believed that in order to gain independence
and establish a wealthy and powerful nation, the
rights of the people would have to be improved first.
These positions were strengthened in the process
of the Japanese invasions of Choson and developed
into the ideas of democratic republicanism, the
belief that sovereignty rests with the people. |
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| (6) Booming Media and Cultural Activities |
The first newspaper published in our country was
the Hansong Sunbo (1883).
The government, which was promoting its enlightenment
policies, established and distributed the Pak Mun-guk
in order to spread enlightenment ideas. The paper
was first published in Chinese characters, but later,
Han'gul articles were added to aid in the distribution
of new knowledge. However, since it possessed the
characteristics of an official gazette, it was not
a profitable operation and ceased publication after
five years.
Private citizens began to publish newspapers after
the Independence Council was organized. The Independence
Council, composed of enlightenment thinkers, printed
the Independent in 1896 in pure Han'gul and thus,
was widely read by the masses. It was full of editorials
inspiring reform, introducing new knowledge and
informing to the people of domestic and foreign
affairs.
The Independent was published for three years but
was dissolved due to government oppression. But
afterwards, the Hwangsong Sinmun, Taehan Maeil-Sinbo,
and Cheguk Sinmun were published and played important
roles in denouncing Japanese aggression and inspiring
patriotism. The enlightenment movement also influenced
cultural activities. The new intellectuals did not
stop with merely accepting Western teachings, but
rearranged Korea's traditional culture as well.
History books were printed in large numbers and
new styles appeared in art and music. Many textbooks
were also compiled in order to teach students in
each school. |
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