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| VII. THE GROWTH AND TRIBULATIONS OF
MODERN KOREA |
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| 1. Social Change in the Latter Choson
Period |
| (1) Restructuring Domestic Politics and Expulsion of
Foreign Aggressors |
Around 1860, the Choson Dynasty faced difficult external
and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national
law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo" politics.
This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation
of both severe poverty among the Korean population and
ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country.
Externally, Catholicism spread far and wide throughout
the country and foreign ships appeared on Korea's coasts
to request commercial activities with the Choson Dynasty.
Such domestic and foreign conditions spawned feelings
of crisis throughout the whole nation. Thus, the Korean
people demanded that the government stabilize the livelihood
of the people, check the inroads into Choson by western
powers, and bring national peace. At that time, the Hungson
Taewon-kun, the Regent, who represented King Kojong who
was a child at the time, courageously enforced reforms
in order to overcome internal and external crisises confronting
the nation.
In order to get rid of the evils of "Sedo" politics, he
promoted persons without making references to political
party or family affiliations, and in order to reduce the
burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's
economy, he reformed the tax system. In order to establish
order through law and strengthen royal authority, he also
reorganized government organizations, destroyed Sowons
and rebuilt Kyongbokkung Palace.
Under the rule of Hungson Taewon-kun, the Choson government
and people bravely fought against aggressions by the Western
powers. After a month of fighting, the defenders of Choson
drove out the French army, who had invaded Kanghwa Island
to protest the persecution of Catholics in 1866. During
this period the U.S. military presence was also driven
out in 1871. The U.S. had invaded the Choson regime in
retaliation of the burning of a merchant ship on the Taedong
River in P'yong'yang. |
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Kanghwa Fortress,
assaulted by the French in 1866, has recently been
restored and epuipped with a modern cannon. |
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After successfully checking aggressions by the French
and American armies, the Choson government further strengthened
its closed door policy. At important locations in Seoul
and throughout the country, monuments were erected to
inspire people to fight against aggressions by Western
powers. Furthermore, the Japanese were driven out for
being Orangk'aes (barbarians) since they maintained relations
with the West.
The anti-foreign powers policy led by Hungson Taewon-kun
received enthusiastic support from the people, because
they felt threatened by potential aggression. However,
this closed door policy was not an adequate measure against
the great current of world affairs, and thus, it further
delayed the modernization movement of Korea. |
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| (2) Opening of Ports and the Enlightenment Policy |
| Hungson Taewon-kun left the government after 10 years
of serving as Regent. He later became friendly to the
idea of exchanges of civilization with foreign powers
and as a result Choson's foreign policy began to open
ports and engage in commercial activities. But before
the government was fully prepared to open its ports, Japan
invaded Kanghwa Island and demanded further openings.
Consequently, Choson was obliged to sign the first modern
treaty of amity with Japan in 1876. The government also
concluded treaties of amity and commerce with the United
States, England, Germany, Russia, France and other nations.
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A Chosun KingDom
militia undergoing an inspection in SEoul |
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Although Choson entered the international arena by signing
treaties with various nations, the treaties signed during
these times were unfair to Choson. For through these treaties,
Choson was forced to permit the rights of low tariff rates,
extraterritoriality and residence of foreign nationals
in Choson's open ports. This in effect, prepared a springboard
for possible political and economic aggressions against
Choson by these nations.
Choson, which signed these treaties for diplomatic and
commercial trade, made many efforts to accept the modernity
of the West.
The government dispatched Pak Chong-yang and other officials
to Japan to observe modern institutions and industrial
organizations. In addition, it dispatched Kim Yun-sik
and other bureaucrats to China to study methods of manufacturing
modern weapons and training the army.
In order to modernize, the Choson government revamped
its political and military organizations. The central
government established 12 ministries under the T'ongni
kimu amun to take charge of such duties as diplomacy,
military and industry. Among new developments in the army,
special military forces were organized and provided with
modern military training. Furthermore, Choson accepted
the proposals made by officials dispatched to foreign
countries to set up modern machinery plants. |
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| (3) The Military Rebellion of 1882 |
When the government continued to promote modernization
of the West, Confucian scholars developed strong opposition
movements. They insisted on fighting the foreign powers
when France and the U.S. ships invaded Kanghwa Island
and the government signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce
with Japan. These Confucian scholars possessed a strong
sense of subjective power, thus they advocated the guarding
of Choson's traditional culture and systems which were
believed to be superior to the West. Amid the conflicts
between the forces of reform and conservatism, a military
rebellion known as the Imo Military Rebellion broke out
in 1882. At that time, the old military was discriminated
against in comparison to the new military (Pyolgi-gun)
and were unable to receive their salaries. When they finally
received their wages in rice mixed with sand and chaff,
they rose up in rebellion. They drove out the Queen's
family (Mins), propelled reform measures, and grasped
political power by putting Hungson Taewon-kun in power
again.
However, China mobilized troops to kidnap Hungson Taewon-kun
and by oppressing the old military, the Mins once again
held political power. In this process, interventions by
China and Japan were so severe that Choson was placed
in an even more difficult position. |
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| (4) The Coup d'Etat of the Reform Party |
The Mins, who again took over the government by borrowing
China's strength, utilized reform-oriented officials to
enforce progressive enlightenment policies. However, due
to increased domestic intervention and economic exploitation
by China, the policies of reform promoted by the government
could not proceed smoothly.
Hereupon, Kim Ok-kyun and the radical reform forces instigated
changes in Choson's political and social systems by utilizing
unorthodox means. They killed and wounded high officials
of the Min family, who were participating in a ceremony
commemorating the completion of a post office building,
by utilizing some members of the military and the Japanese
army. Additionally, they persuaded King Kojong to join
their side and thus managed to grasp political power.
Members of the radical reform forces who were newly appointed
as government officials attempted huge reforms in all
fields in order to build Choson into a wealthy modern
nation with a powerful military. They put forth a platform
of reform and declared that they would do away with discrimination
along family lines, establish equality for all people,
amend tax laws, unify the financial agencies, establish
a police system and modernize the administrative system.
But before these reforms were enforced, the radical reform
party was expelled from political circles and their reform
measures dropped. The forces of conservativism borrowed
the strength of Chinese power to hold on to government
control and the forces of radical reform became political
refugees who fled to Japan and America.
The reasons behind the failure of the radical forces were
that they failed to make thorough preparations, did not
obtain the support of the people and attempted to retain
political power through the help of Japan which always
placed them in danger of betrayal. The new Choson government
which was based on the coup d' tat pursued policies of
gradual and healthy reforms, but due to Chinese intervention
and economic aggressions by Japan, the livelihood of the
people became even more endangered. |
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| (5) Tonghak Movement |
To check the powers of China and Japan, the government
of Choson utilized Russia. Russia, which had just finished
constructing a military post in Vladivostok and was promoting
a policy of southward expansion, hoped to use this opportunity
to maintain military bases on Ulung Island and Masanp'o.
But England, which hoped to counter the southward expansion
policy of Russia, dispatched a fleet to the Far East to
occupy Choson's Komun Island where she built a military
port. The government of Choson strongly protested this
unjustifiable act by England and after many months of
negotiations, forced England to withdraw from the Island
in 1887.
While Choson was confronting the aggressions of both internal
and external forces, a new religious movement grew among
the peasants. The followers of Tonghak, who had organized
a large force, held demonstrations everywhere, in order
to clear up the accusations against the founder of the
religion, Ch'oe Che-u, who had been unjustly arrested
and put to death. In addition, they demanded that the
government allow freedom of religion, purge corrupt government
officials and drive out the Japanese and Western forces.
The actions of the followers of Tonghak proceeded into
an all-out peasants' war-the Kobu Rebellion (1894). The
Kobu Rebellion was a limited uprising which broke out
in protest against the tyranny and abuses of the magistrate,
Cho Pyong-kap, but as a result of the merciless oppression
by the government, all the peasants in both the north
and south Cholla provinces rose up in an uprising which
spread throughout the whole nation within a short time.
The peasant army under the command of Chon Pong-chun annihilated
the government troops and occupied all of the Cholla Province.
The government, realizing that it was unable to suppress
the peasants' army alone, requested that China dispatch
its troops. Thus, the government promised the peasants
that it would listen to their demands and ordered them
to dissolve their troops.
At the time, the peasants' army had demanded: the punishment
of corrupt officials, tyrannical men of wealth and Yangbans;
abolition of the social status structure; waiver of public
and private debts; equal redistribution of land; and expulsion
of Japanese forces. When the government promised to accept
the above demands, Chon Pong-chun dispersed the peasants'
army. In addition, they organized offices in 53 counties
under their occupation so that the peasants themselves
would take part in carrying out such reforms.
While the peasant movement was beginning to take the first
steps toward a resolution of the problems with the peace
agreement between Chon Pong-chun and the government, China
and Japan dispatched troops into Choson and the Sino-Japanese
War erupted. Japan, in particular, had ambitions of occupying
Choson and when she was convinced that victory over China
was certain, Japan mobilized its military forces. Japan
then drove China out of Choson and marched south with
the government army as its puppets to suppress the peasant
army.
The 200,000 peasant troops under Chon Pong-chun's command
engaged in repeated battles with Japan. But they were
no match for the modern Japanese army. Thus, the peasants
movement, which had had as its objectives revolutionary
reform within government and society, in addition to the
expulsion of foreign forces, ended in failure. |
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| (6) Reforms in the Political and Social Systems |
Japan which had sent troops under the pretext of suppressing
the peasant movement, demanded that the Choson government
make internal reforms. This demand to change the political
and economic systems of Choson into Japanese-like systems
was made in order to accommodate the Japanese invasion
of Choson.
The government, which was receiving pressure from the
population for huge reforms, could not but form some kind
of proposal for reforms in the social and political systems.
Thus, the government set up a special agency called the
Kun'guk Kimuch'o, which carried out 208 types of reforms
in the government, the economy and society (Kabo Reform).
Reforms in the political system included separating the
duties of the palace from governmental duties, abolishing
the civil service examination, separating the judiciary
from other functions, and reorganizing local administration
systems. Economic reforms included unification of the
financial offices, improvements in the system, and uniformity
of standards of weights and measures. Among social reforms,
the social status system was abolished, widows were permitted
to remarry, and torture and punishment for people who
had affiliations with criminals were eliminated.
There were many positive aspects in these measures by
the government to change to the premodern political and
social orders. However, because the Japanese were behind
these changes, there was much resistance. To suppress
the objections, Japan mobilized its army and "Nang'ins"
(political thugs) to murder the Empress Myongsong in 1895.
Under aggravated Japanese pressure, the government spurred
on with even more reforms. These included the use of the
solar calendar, enforcement of vaccinations, establishment
of primary schools, establishment of a postal service,
use of the numerical year system, and enforcement of cutting
the traditional long hair.
But since these reforms did not reflect the will of the
people, opposition was inevitable. |
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Stamps used during
the Taehan Cheguk period (1884~1907). |
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| The Choson people were well aware that Japan,
as a means to occupy, had demanded internal changes and
had murdered its queen. The rise of the anti-Japanese
righteous army nationwide reflected such an atmosphere.
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| (7) The National Self-Reliance Movement of the Independence
Council |
As Japanese intervention in internal affairs increased
in severity, King Kojong fled to the Russian Legation
and set up a new cabinet in 1896. He also engaged the
Russian forces and began to carry out a policy to restrain
the Japanese forces. The government's pro-Russian policy
was effective in checking the Japanese forces, but it
also resulted in greatly damaging the self-reliance of
the nation.
At this juncture, some officials and people of Choson
made moves to promote national self-reliance, independence,
strengthening of the nation and free rights for the people.
This was known as the movement of the Independence Council.
Among the important figures in the Independence Council
were So Chae-p'il, Yun Ch'i-ho and Yi Sang-chae. They
erected the Independence Arch and Independence Hall and
published a newspaper to promote a consciousness of national
self-reliance among the people. In addition, they held
discussion rallies in Seoul and other important regional
cities, denouncing the Government's policy of depending
on foreign forces and stood in the frontlines of enlightening
the people on modern political thought.
The activities of the Independence Council were a great
impetus to the government and the people. The Independence
Council advocated a political system composed of a constitutional
monarchy and a parliament, and in diplomacy it called
for diplomatic relations based on the principle of self-reliant
neutrality. Socially, it advocated the promotion of people's
rights, namely, the rights to existence, freedom and equality.
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Tongnim-mun (Independence
Gate) and Tongnip-kwan (Independence Hall). With
donations from the private sector, the Tongnip hyop
hoe (Association for Independence) erected Tongnim-mun
in 1898 as a way to instill a spirit of independence
and patriotism among the people. |
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At one time, the government accepted the above proposals
of the Independence Council and adopted postures to execute
them. However, the government, feeling that the demands
of the Independence Council and the citizens were encroaching
on the privileges of the Emperor and the ruling classes,
suppressed and dissolved the Independence Council.
Although the movement of the Independence Council ended
in failure, it contributed greatly to planting a consciousness
for modernization and national self-reliance in the hearts
of the people. This consciousness also became the ideological
basis for the anti-Japanese movement later on. |
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The first edition of Tongnip
Sinmun(The independent)
: First published on April 7.1896 by So Chae-pil
as the official publication of the Tongnip hyop
hoe (Association for independence), it was Korea's
first non-governmental newspaper. |
Emperor Kojong |
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| (8) Establishment of the Taehan Cheguk and Policy of
Self Empowerment |
King Kojong who had taken refuge in the Russian Legation
for the past year, returned to Kyong'unkung Palace (now
Toksukung Palace) at the height of the activities of the
Independence Council. The people renamed his country Taehan
Cheguk (the Great Han Empire) and proclaimed to the world
that Taehan Cheguk was a self-reliant nation in 1897.
Furthermore, he enforced various reforms in politics and
set about to establish a powerful and wealthy country.
The Taehan Cheguk government expanded a program of new
education and set up a Central Council to reflect the
will of the people, but when the Independence Council
and the people expanded their political movement, the
government supressed them and took measures to strengthen
its own imperial power.
The government promulgated nine articles of the laws of
the Taehan Cheguk which granted full authority of command
of the legislature, the executive, and diplomacy to the
Emperor and infinite imperial authority in 1899. To establish
the national economy and improve the people's lives, it
enforced policies to carry out land surveys and encourage
industries. The establishment of various manufacturing
factories, sending students abroad, strengthening industrial
education, improving transportation as well as communication
facilities and the establishment of hospitals were the
chief policies of the Taehan Cheguk.
With the proclamation of Taehan Cheguk, the various reform
policies of the government heightened national autonomy
and aided in the wide acceptance of modern civilization.
However, severe party strife within the government impeded
these reform policies, and since they were not consistently
enforced, they were not able to completely check interventions
by foreign forces.
For these reasons, peasants of the Yonghak-dang (offsprings
of the former peasant movement) in the Ch'ungch'ong, Cholla,
and Kyongsang provinces continued to demand social and
economic reforms. In addition, the Hwalbin-dang forces,
which were composed of merchants and workers, sprang up
in various places and demanded social reform and the expulsion
of foreign powers. |
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