|
| |
|
| VI. LIFE IN LATE-CHOSON |
|
|
| 1. Social Change in the Latter Choson
Period |
| (1) Factionalized Government |
In the 16th century, the Sarim scholars became officials
of the central government and confronted the old scholars
who were in positions of power in the government. The
two factions participated in the administration of the
government under King Songjong with different political
views but did not often confront each other.
Immediately after Prince Yonsan came to the throne, confusion
ensued in politics. The existing and new factions engaged
in a political struggle which has come to be known as
"Sahwa," the bloody purge of scholars. When Yonsan was
dethroned and Chungjong became King, the new Sarim forces
attempted to administer to the government a Confucian
idealism centered around the scholar Cho Kwang-jo.
However, their policies of reform failed as a result of
opposition by the old faction. This drove the government
into a state of confusion. Later, the political scene
worsened, as conflicts within the queen's family increased
in severity.
Under the reign of King Sonjo, the new Sarim forces led
the nation's activities and Sarim politics began. There
were, however, political differences among the Sarims
and factionalism arose. They carried out a particular
form of governing by restraining the growth of any one
particular faction and taking turns in possessing power.
This factionalism which began in early Choson became more
complicated as they entered the late Choson Dynasty. Later
factionalism grew even worse and had negative ramifications
on social and economic life. These factional strifes were
not corrected even after the country experienced the great
suffering of the Waeran and Horan. Rather, factionalism
grew in intensity creating not only political confusion
but divisions in society as well. |
| |
| (2) The T'angp'yong Policy and Restoration of Choson
|
The many years of continuous factionalism in politics
brought about all sorts of negative effects. There were
deep concerns expressed over such ramifications and during
the reign of King Sonjo, Yi I cautioned against the evils
of factionalism.
In the 18th century, Yongjo and Chongjo promoted the T'angp'yongch'aek,
a pacifying policy, in order to check factionalism. They
called the representatives of each faction together, advised
them to get along, promoted people without making distinctions
on the basis of faction, erected the T'angp'yong monument
at the entrance of Songgyun'gwan and even taught students.
This policy, enforced with a strong will, eliminated factionalism
by refusing to take sides with any one faction and thus
achieved the restoration of Choson.
Yongjo closed 300 Sowons, enforced the Kyunyok law (balancing
law) in order to do away with evils within the military
and restored the Sinmun'go system in order to carry out
politics reflective of the wishes of the people. In addition,
many precious books were published and distributed.
King Chongjo also promoted King Yongjo's policy of strengthening
royal authority. He especially made efforts to achieve
cultural restoration. He established the Kyujang-gak (palace
library) and nurtured it as an institution of the crown
for the study of the arts, sciences and national policies.
He also ordered the compilation of a code of law called
Taejon t'ongp'yon, a pictorial text of the military arts,
the Kyujangchonun, a book on phonetics, Chungbo munhonpigo
(encyclopedia Koreana), the Ch'ungwan-ji, and the T'akch'i-ji
as national undertakings. The newly organized Royal guards
(Changyong yong) also strengthened the military base of
the royal authority. |
| |
| (3) Reorganization of the Tax System |
The law-abiding people of Choson bore the three duties
of paying farm taxes, public imposts and corvees. Around
the period of the Waeran, tax collecting was a disorderly
operation which increased the difficulties of the people
and thus worsened with the Waeran and the Horan.
Only by restructuring its system of taxation could the
people live in stability and the government increase its
revenue. Restructuring of the taxation system began after
the two wars and was all but completed by the 18th century.
Land tax was imposed on farmlands. During the two wars,
much of the land was desolated and government records
of landholdings burnt. Land-surveys and the rearranging
of land registers increased the acreage of arable land.
However, the amount of land used as palace farms and other
royal land which was not taxed increased, and the burden
of tax-paying people also increased. Thus, the government
instituted and enforced laws which lowered tax rates in
order to lighten the people's tax burden and which required
fair imposition of taxes.
There were also problems in operating the system of paying
imposts on certain farm goods particular to various localities.
From the beginning of the nation, the system of paying
imposts was enforced but the system caused great suffering
among the farmers. Thus, the government ordered the payment
of taxes not in goods but in rice and the amount to be
paid would be determined by the law governing that region.
This was known as the Taedong Law.
The Taedong Law was exemplarily enforced in Kyonggi-do
through the proposal of Yi Won-ik under the reign of Prince
Kwang'hae and it became a uniform law which was enforced
in all the provinces except for the P'yong'an and Hamgyong
provinces until the reign of King Sukjong.
Military service was enforced through a system of universal
conscription and all peo ple were expected to serve. However,
from the time of King Chungjong, the military service
system was changed so that people would not have to directly
bear the burden of service instead, persons with the financial
resources could offer the government cloth for military
service. The government drafted soldiers without financial
income from these fabrics and thus could maintain national
defense. However, establishing military organizations
with such a system of drafts was in reality unfeasible.
There were many abuses in imposting the amount of fabric
for military clothes which would have to be paid out.
For example, there were occasions on which people were
forced to provide military uniform clothing for soldiers
who had run away or were missing.
From earlier times, there were efforts to do away with
such aspects of military service. King Yongjo enforced
the Kyunyok Law. This law decreased the number of Pil
(a unit of measure for cloth) that would have to be paid
from two pils to one, and the state received taxes from
fishing, saltmaking, and ships which originally had been
collected by the local office or the palace in order to
fulfill its financial needs. With changes in the tax system,
the burdens of the people decreased, but the abuses in
collecting taxes were not completely resolved. |
| |
| (4) Increase in Farm Production |
| |
 |
Ginseng : For
over 2,000 years. Korea has been recognized as the
main producer of Ginseng. The root played an important
part in Korea's political and economic relations
with neightboring countries. |
|
| |
An effort to reconstruct the farmland left desolated
by the Waeran and the Horan wars was undertaken by the
government to stabilize the people's livelihood.
Land surveys were carried out by compiling land registers,
land reclamation was encouraged and the development of
irrigation facilities were enforced. Handbooks for farmers
were published and distributed in rural communities. The
construction of dams and reservoirs increased the number
to 6,000 throughout the country by the end of the 18th
century. As a result of the expansion in irrigation facilities,
rice paddy fields increased. The rice transplanting method
which had been used by some farmers in the early stages
of Choson was popularized and reduced labor power and
increased production. The method of cultivating barley
in rice paddies after harvest was popularized. In the
area of dryfield farming, planting crops in furrows was
a common way to obtain a larger harvest.
By reducing labor power through new methods of farming,
the per capita of arable farmland increased greatly and
land owning farmers who cultivated large acreages of land
also began to increase. Some of the owners who had large
pieces of land employed farm laborers to help them cultivate
the land. In the 18th century, commercial products such
as ginseng, tobacco, cotton, fruit, and herbs were also
cultivated in order to increase the income of farm families.
To help in agricultural development, books on agriculture
were published. The Kamjobo, Nongga chipsong (agricultural
house collection), Sallim kyongje (forest economy), and
Imwon kyongje-chi (forestry economy) are representative
of farmer's handbooks which appeared during this time.
As the households in farming villages prospered, mutual
aid organizations such as Kye and Ture formed in rural
communities. |
| |
| (5) Commercial Developments and the Circulation Organization |
During the early years of Choson, except for city shops
in Seoul which supplied ordered goods and enjoyed prosperity
under special protection by the government, merchants
remained inactive. However, in later years, a system of
barter emerged and commercial activities underwent change.
After the enactment of the Taedong Law, the government
procured necessary goods and had them delivered. The artisans
who were responsible for providing these goods were able
to thus amass wealth through this system. With the appearance
of commercial crops and production goods of "free" handcraftsmen
in society, the private merchants who handled such goods
made their advent. The city shopkeepers tried to interfere
with the activities of these merchants by banning them,
to no avail.
Under the reign of King Chongjo, a policy of free commercial
activities eliminated restrictions against private dealers
and commercial activitities of free merchants increased.
In the countryside, markets became active, regular markets
appeared in each local region and in the large cities,
permanent markets opened. In the markets of local regions,
merchants and peddlers made their transactions. In the
middle of the 18th century, about 1,000 markets opened.
Following the development of these markets, roads were
improved and currency was circulated in large amounts
to facilitate trade. With the emergence of Kogans, a type
of middleman, and facilities such as Yogak and Kaekchu,
commerce and trade flourished. |
| |
 |
A picture of an
old market place outside Namdaemun Gate. |
|
| |
Parallelling the development of domestic commerce, foreign
trade also increased. From the mid-17th century, as trade
activities with Qing increased, official and private trade
activities were carried on in Chunggangchin and Ceman
in Fenghuangcheng Manchuria. Leather, paper, cotton, and
ginseng were exported and silk, drugs, hats, and stationery
were imported. Trade with Japan was conducted through
the Waegwan (Japanese house) with Tongnae as its center,
exporting ginseng, rice, and cotton, and importing silver,
copper, sulphur, and pepper.
Free merchants dealing in domestic goods accumulated huge
fortunes. The "Kyonggang" merchants of Seoul, "Songsang"
in Kaesong, "Yusang" in P'yong'yang, "Mansang" of Uiju,
and the "Naesang" of Tongnae were particularly well known
for their wealth. |
| |
| (6) Changes in Handicrafts and Mining Activities |
In the early stages of Choson, handicraft activities
were under strong state control because of a system of
exclusively government-commissioned handicraftsmen. However,
the road to private enterprises in production was gradually
opened. During the latter years of Choson, most handicraftsmen
paid artisan taxes to the state and carried out their
production activities as free merchants. They manufactured
paper, ceramics, brassware, lacquerware, printing types,
weapons, farm implements, and other necessities of everyday
life. After the enactment of the Taedong Law, Kong'in
(suppliers of goods on demand for the government), appeared
and other handicraftmen produced large quantities of handicrafts
through the support of wealthy capitalist merchants, who
provided goods for Kong'ins.
With growing demand for silver, trade with China increased
and silver mining was actively pursued. By the end of
the 17th century, 70 silver mines were in operation. At
this time, developments in gold mining were also made.
Copper mining was developed actively for copperwares,
weapons and copper coins.
However, enterprising miners and merchants, because of
the heavy burdens of taxes, mobilized their capital in
order to develop and gather underground resources. |
| |
| (7) Changes in the Social Status System |
The Choson society was a Yangban-centered society. Severe
discrimination existed between the Yangbans and the ordinary
people. Among the Yangbans, there were those who, as they
went from generation to generation, put on airs of pretension,
and there were Yangbans in the countryside who outwardly
maintained their social status in spite of economic bankruptcy.
Among some farmers, there were those who, either through
distinguished service in war or providing assistance to
the national economy during times of difficulty, were
granted Yangban status in recognition of their patriotism.
As a result of increased royal or landlord owned farmlands,
farmers who lost their land were forced to become either
hired farm laborers or day workers.
Among slaves, who were recipients of the most contemptible
treatment in society, there were increasing numbers who
were given the status of common people in gratitude for
their military exploits. Because an increase in draftable
soldiers and tax payers meant increases in national revenue,
the state tolerated the rise of slaves to the status of
common people. Thus, by 1801, except for a minority, a
total of 66,000 public slaves were liberated to become
law-abiding citizens of the state.
Technical workers, illegitimate sons of Yangbans, and
local officials in government were referred to as the
middle class and were recipients of discrimination. Following
the changes in the social and economic situation in the
latter period of Choson, these persons made efforts to
elevate their social status.
The Yangban-centered status system was affected, and movement
between each social stratum was evident but was inadequate
to overturn the historical trends. Thus, the structure
of Yangban domination continued as before. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
List
